DECIMAL DAY, THE DECIMALISATION IN THE UK & IRELAND

Today, The Grandma has been reading about Decimal Day, when the UK and Ireland decimalised its respective £sd currency on a day like today in 1971.

Decimal Day in the United Kingdom and in Ireland was Monday 15 February 1971, the day on which each country decimalised its respective £sd currency of pounds, shillings, and pence.

Before this date in the United Kingdom, the British pound was made up of 20 shillings, each of which was made up of 12 pence, a total of 240 pence. With decimalisation, the pound kept its old value and name, and the only changes were in relation to the subunits. The shilling was abolished, and the pound was subdivided into 100 new pence (abbreviated p), each of which was worth 2.4 old pence (abbreviated d). In Ireland, the Irish pound had a similar £sd currency structure and similar decimalisation changes took place.

The Russian ruble was the first decimal currency to be used in Europe, dating to 1704, though China had been using a decimal system for at least 2000 years. Elsewhere, the Coinage Act of 1792 introduced decimal currency to the United States, the first English speaking country to adopt a decimalised currency. In France, the decimal French franc was introduced in 1795.

Before the 1970s, earlier efforts in the United Kingdom to introduce decimalised currency had failed; in 1824, the United Kingdom Parliament rejected Sir John Wrottesley's proposals to decimalise sterling, which were prompted by the introduction of the French franc three decades earlier.

Following this, little progress towards decimalisation was made in the United Kingdom for over a century, with the exception of the two shilling silver florin, first issued on 1849, worth 1/10 of a pound. A double florin or four shilling piece, introduced in 1887, was a further step towards decimalisation, but failed to gain acceptance and was struck only between 1887 and 1890.

More information: Historic UK

Though little further progress was made, The Decimal Association, founded in 1841 to promote decimalisation and metrication, saw interest in both causes boosted by a growing national realisation of the importance of ease in international trade, following the 1851 Great Exhibition; it was as a result of the growing interest in decimalisation that the florin was issued. In a preliminary report issued by the in 1857, entitled the Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage, the benefits and drawbacks of decimalisation were considered, but the report failed to draw any conclusions on the adoption of a change in currency.

A final report in 1859 from the two remaining commissioners, Lord Overstone and Governor of the Bank of England John Hubbard, came out against the idea, claiming that it had few merits.

In 1862, the Select committee on Weights and Measures favoured the introduction of decimalisation to accompany the introduction of metric weights and measures.

The Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage (1918-1920), chaired by Lord Emmott, reported in 1920 that the only feasible scheme was to divide the pound into 1,000 mills (the pound and mill system, first proposed in 1824), but that it would be too inconvenient to introduce. A minority of four members said that the disruption would be worthwhile. A further three members recommended that the pound should be replaced by the royal, consisting of 100 halfpennies, with there then being 4.8 royals to the former pound.

In 1960, a report prepared jointly by the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the Association of British Chambers of Commerce, followed by the success of decimalisation in South Africa, prompted the Government to set up the Committee of the Inquiry on Decimal Currency (Halsbury Committee) in 1961, which reported in 1963. The adoption of the changes suggested in the report was announced on 1 March 1966. The Decimal Currency Board (DCB) was created to manage the transition, but the plans were not approved by Parliament until the Decimal Currency Act of May 1969. The former Greater London Council leader Bill Fiske was named as the Chairman of the Decimal Currency Board.

Consideration was given to introducing a new major unit of currency worth ten shillings in the old currency. Suggested names included the new pound, the royal and the noble. It would have resulted in the decimal penny being worth only slightly more than the old penny, an approach adopted in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in the 1960s, adopting respectively the South African rand, Australian dollar and New Zealand dollar equal in value to 10 shillings. However, Halsbury decided that the pound sterling's importance as a reserve currency meant that the pound should remain unchanged.

Due to extensive preparations and the publicity campaigns organised by the British government, Decimal Day itself went smoothly. Some criticism -such as the fact that the new halfpenny coin was relatively small, and that some traders had taken advantage of the transition to raise their prices- were levelled, despite the fact that in the latter case, overall price adjustments slightly favoured the consumer.

Some used new pennies as sixpences in vending machines. After 15 February, shops continued to accept payment in old coins but always issued change in new coins. The old coins were then returned to banks, and so most of them were quickly taken out of circulation.

More information: Independent

When the old £sd system (consisting of pounds, shillings, and pence) was in operation, the United Kingdom and Ireland operated within the Sterling area, effectively a single monetary area.

The Irish pound was created as a separate currency in 1927 with distinct coins and notes, but the terms of the Irish Currency Act obliged the Irish currency commissioners to redeem Irish pounds on a fixed 1:1 basis, and so day-to-day banking operations continued exactly as they had been before the creation of the Irish pound. The Irish pound was decimalised on 15 February 1971, the same date as the British pound.

This arrangement continued until 1979 when Irish obligations to the European Monetary System led to Ireland breaking the historic link with Sterling.

In Ireland, all pre-decimal coins, except the 1s, 2s and 10s coins, were called in during the initial process between 1969 and 1972; the ten shilling coin, which, as recently issued and in any event equivalent to 50p, was permitted to remain outstanding (though due to silver content, the coin did not circulate). The 1s and 2s were recalled in 1993 and 1994 respectively. Pre-decimal Irish coins may still be redeemed at their face value equivalent in euros at the Central Bank in Dublin.

Pre-decimal Irish coins and stamps' values were denoted with Irish language abbreviations (scilling (shilling, abbreviated s) and pingin (penny, abbreviated p)) rather than abbreviations derived from the Latin solidi and denarii used in other Sterling countries. Irish people and business otherwise used £sd just as in other countries. Thus, prior to decimalisation, coins were marked 1p, 3p... rather 1d and 3d as in Britain.

Low-value Irish postage stamps likewise used p rather than d; so a two-penny stamp was marked 2p in Ireland rather than 2d as in the UK. After decimalisation, while British stamps switched from d to p, Irish stamps (but not coins) printed the number with no accompanying letter; so a stamp worth 2 new pence was marked 2p in the UK and simply 2 in Ireland.

More information: NPR

The true currency of life is time, not money,
and we've all got a limited stock of that.

Robert Harris

1994, THE CHANNEL TUNNEL JOINS THE UK & FRANCE

Today, The Grandma has been reading about one of the greatest constructions of the last century, the Channel Tunnel that connects the United Kingdom and France, that was opened on a day like today in 1994.

The Channel Tunnel, in French Le tunnel sous la Manche, also referred to as the Eurotunnel or Chunnel, is a 50.45-kilometre railway tunnel that connects Folkestone (Kent, England, UK) with Coquelles (Hauts-de-France, France) beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover.

It is the only fixed link between the island of Great Britain and the European mainland.

At its lowest point, it is 75 m deep below the sea bed and 115 m below sea level. At 37.9 kilometres, the tunnel has the longest underwater section of any tunnel in the world, and is the third-longestrailway tunnel in the world. The speed limit for trains through the tunnel is 160 km/h. The Channel Tunnel is owned and operated by Getlink.

The tunnel carries high-speed Eurostar passenger trains, the Eurotunnel Shuttle for road vehicles and international freight trains.

The tunnel connects end-to-end with the high-speed railway lines of the LGV Nord in France and High Speed 1 in England.

In 2017, through rail services carried 10.3 million passengers and 1.22 million tonnes of freight, and the Shuttle carried 10.4 million passengers, 2.6 million cars, 51,000 coaches, and 1.6 million lorries, equivalent to 21.3 million tonnes of freight. This compares with 11.7 million passengers, 2.6 million lorries and 2.2 million cars by sea through the Port of Dover.

More information: Eurotunnel

Plans to build a cross-Channel fixed link appeared as early as 1802, but British political and media pressure over the compromising of national security had disrupted attempts to build a tunnel. An early unsuccessful attempt at building a tunnel was made in the late 19th century, on the English side, in the hope of forcing the hand of the English Government.

The eventual successful project, organized by Eurotunnel, began construction in 1988 and opened in 1994. Valued at £5.5 billion in 1985, it was at the time the most expensive construction project ever proposed. The cost finally amounted to £9 billion, equivalent to £16 billion in 2016, well over its predicted budget.

Since its construction, the tunnel has experienced a few mechanical problems. Both fires and cold weather have temporarily disrupted its operation.

Since at least 1997, people have attempted to use the tunnel to travel illegally to the UK, causing many migrants to head towards Calais and creating ongoing issues of human rights violations, illegal immigration, diplomatic disagreement, and violence.

In 1979, the Mouse-hole Project was suggested when the Conservatives came to power in Britain. The concept was a single-track rail tunnel with a service tunnel, but without shuttle terminals. The British government took no interest in funding the project, but the British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher did not object to a privately funded project, although she said she assumed it would be for cars rather than trains.

In 1981, Thatcher and the French president François Mitterrand agreed to establish a working group to evaluate a privately funded project. In June 1982 the Franco-British study group favoured a twin tunnel to accommodate conventional trains and a vehicle shuttle service.

More information: Euro Tunnel Freight

In April 1985 promoters were invited to submit scheme proposals. Four submissions were shortlisted:

-Channel Tunnel, a rail proposal based on the 1975 scheme presented by Channel Tunnel Group/France–Manche (CTG/F–M).

-Eurobridge, a 35 km (22 mi) suspension bridge with a series of 5 km spans with a roadway in an enclosed tube.

-Euroroute, a 21 km tunnel between artificial islands approached by bridges.

-Channel Expressway, a large diameter road tunnels with mid-channel ventilation towers.

The cross-Channel ferry industry protested under the name Flexilink. In 1975 there was no campaign protesting against a fixed link, with one of the largest ferry operators (Sealink) being state-owned. Flexilink continued rousing opposition throughout 1986 and 1987.

Public opinion strongly favoured a drive-through tunnel, but concerns about ventilation, accident management and driver mesmerization led to the only shortlisted rail submission, CTG/F-M, being awarded the project in January 1986.

Reasons given for the selection included that it caused the least disruption to shipping in the Channel, the least environmental disruption, was the best protected against terrorism, and was the most likely to attract sufficient private finance.

Under a planned legislation published on 12 February 2019, the UK and France would have had time to renegotiate the terms under which the railway service operates. Trains would have been permitted to use the Channel Tunnel for three months if the UK left the EU without a deal, under a proposed European Commission law.

The UK has since left the EU with an agreement.

More information: The Telegraph

Crossrail is a prime example of infrastructure.
It is a rather deadly word,
but I think it is exciting stuff,
the civil engineering which makes Britain tick
-the bridges, tunnels, power and water networks,
which bind us together.

Evan Davis

1981. BUCKS FIZZ, 'MAKING YOUR MIND UP' FROM THE UK

Bucks Fizz

Today, The Grandma has been talking with The Watsons. They continue isolated and working in Rennette Watson's candidature to Eurovision Song Contest. They have been talking about British winners, especially Bucks Fizz, a pop group that won the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest with the song Making Your Mind Up.

Before talking about Bucks Fizz, The Grandma has offered a new Cambridge Key English Test A2 Example to The Watsons.

Download Cambridge KET Exam Model (11)

 
Download Cambridge KET Results Sheet (11)

Bucks Fizz is a British pop group that achieved success in the 1980s, most notably for winning the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest with the song Making Your Mind Up.

The group was formed in January 1981 specifically for the contest and comprised four vocalists: Bobby G, Cheryl Baker, Mike Nolan and Jay Aston.

They received attention for the dance routine which accompanied the song, in which the male members of the group ripped the female members' outer skirts off to reveal much shorter mini-skirts beneath.

The group went on to have a successful career around the world, although they were commercially unsuccessful in the United States, but the UK remained their biggest market, where they had three No.1 singles with Making Your Mind Up (1981), The Land of Make Believe (1981) and My Camera Never Lies (1982) and became one of the top-selling groups of the 1980s.

They also had UK Top 10 hits with Now Those Days Are Gone (1982), If You Can't Stand the Heat (1982), When We Were Young (1983) and New Beginning (Mamba Seyra) (1986). Bucks Fizz have sold over 50 million records worldwide.

Bucks Fizz in Eurovision, 1981

The line-up of the group has changed a number of times over the years, most famously when Jay Aston quit the group in 1985 and was replaced by Shelley Preston.

Today, two versions of the group exist: a version which includes original member Bobby G, and a version comprising the other three original members -Cheryl Baker, Mike Nolan and Jay Aston under the name The Fizz.

In late 1980, Nichola Martin and Andy Hill sought to create a new group to enter their song Making Your Mind Up in the Eurovision Song Contest. The first member to be recruited was Mike Nolan, who was known to Martin. Together, they recorded a demo of the song and entered it for inclusion in A Song for Europe -the preliminary heats for the contest. Realising that a name was needed for the performing artists, Martin quickly decided on Buck's Fizz, as it was her favourite drink.

In January, Martin contacted Cheryl Baker to join them, as she remembered her from the 1978 Eurovision group, Co-Co. Concurrent to this, Martin was holding auditions for another male vocalist and female vocalist, should Baker turn down the position, which she didn't. At the end of these auditions, Martin had found a male singer, Stephen Fischer and female, Jay Aston.

More information: All Music

Unsure of which female vocalist to use, she ultimately decided to use both Baker and Aston as she felt their vocals complemented each other and Martin stepped down from the group in order to team up with Hill for another line-up as they had two songs in the competition.

Fischer then became unavailable as he was appearing in a musical at the time and Martin hired another auditionee, Bobby G for the group. The four members came together for the first time on 11 January 1981. Jill Shirley, with whom Martin had been in a group called Rags who had appeared in the 1977 A Song for Europe contest, placing fourth, agreed to manage the group.

During rehearsals, a dance routine was devised for the song which went on to become famous for the moment where the girls' skirts are ripped off halfway through -only to reveal shorter skirts underneath.

Bucks Fizz in Eurovision, 1981

The routine itself was choreographed by Chrissie Wickham, a former member of dance troupe Hot Gossip, although Martin, Baker and Aston have all since laid claim to the skirt-rip idea, Martin had used a similar idea when Rags had taken part in the earlier A Song for Europe contest in 1977; subsequently performing the same routine on Top of the Pops after failing to win the competition.

On 11 March, A Song for Europe took place with the then unknown Bucks Fizz competing against well-known act Liquid Gold, as well as Hill and Martin's own group, Gem.

Making Your Mind Up became an easy winner and the group recorded the song with Hill as producer. Later in the month it was released as a single and entered the charts at No.24. By the time the contest was staged, the single had risen to No.2.

On 4 April, Bucks Fizz represented United Kingdom in the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest, which was held in Dublin. Although they were favourites to win, the song faced stiff competition and after a vocally unsound rendition, the early votes were poor. Halfway through the voting process, Bucks Fizz took the lead, although they remained close throughout. Ultimately, Bucks Fizz won the contest by a margin of four points, beating Germany into second place.

Making Your Mind Up became a major hit around the continent, reaching No.1 in the UK as well as eight other countries. It charted highly in other countries such as Australia, eventually selling four million copies worldwide.

More information: The Guardian

With Shirley remaining as the group's manager, Hill as producer and Martin as co-songwriter, they worked with record company A&R head Bill Kimber to continue the group's success, determined that they would not become another Eurovision one-hit wonder. A follow-up single was recorded amid promotional tours and the group's image was revamped.

In May, the single Piece of the Action was released. The song boasted a contemporary pop sound and high production values, in contrast to the rock and roll style of Making Your Mind Up. As Baker has stated: Our follow-up single was nothing at all like Making Your Mind Up, it was a good, strong, contemporary pop song, Piece of the Action became an immediate hit and quickly rose to No.12 in the UK charts. It also charted highly across Europe. 

Bucks Fizz in Eurovision, 1981

Buoyed by this success, the group launched into recording their debut album with producer Andy Hill. Released in July, the self-titled album also became a top 20 hit in the UK charts, as did their third single, One of Those Nights.

In November 1981, Bucks Fizz represented the UK at the World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo, where they achieved the Best Song Award and fifth place overall with their song Another Night. The song was released as a single there and went on to be included on their second album.

In 2005, BBC viewers were invited to vote on the most memorable Eurovision moments ever. Bucks Fizz won with the Making Your Mind Up skirt-rip routine.

More information: Smooth Radio

Making Your Mind Up is a song by the British pop group Bucks Fizz. It was the winner of the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest and was composed by Andy Hill and John Danter. Released in March 1981, it was Bucks Fizz's debut single, the group having been formed just two months earlier.

Following its win in the contest, the song reached No.1 in the UK and several other countries, eventually selling in excess of four million copies. It launched the career of the group, who went on to become one of the biggest selling acts of the 1980s and featured on their debut, self-titled album.

From 2004 to 2007 the BBC used the name Making Your Mind Up for their Eurovision selection show in honour of the song.

In late 1980, songwriter Andy Hill composed Making Your Mind Up with an eye to entering it into the A Song for Europe finals the following year. Working with his then girlfriend, Nichola Martin, a singer and music publisher, she encouraged him to collaborate with musician John Danter, who she could sign up to her publishing company, therefore owning half the rights of the song, Hill was already signed to another publisher. Martin claims that Danter's input was minimal, the song being essentially a Hill composition.

Bucks Fizz in Eurovision, 1981

In October 1980, they set about recording a demo of the song featuring the vocals of Hill, Martin and Mike Nolan, a singer Martin had worked with before.

In December, the song was chosen out of 591 submitted entries to be one of the eight songs performed in the contest. Martin then realised she had to quickly assemble a group to perform the song for the contest, based around her and Nolan. With the song already entered under the name Bucks Fizz, Martin and future group manager, Jill Shirley recruited Cheryl Baker, Bobby G and Jay Aston to the line-up, with Martin herself dropping out.

The song was alongside another Hill/Danter composition, Have You Ever Been in Love, which would be performed by Martin and Hill under the name Gem.

Martin and Shirley secured a recording deal with RCA Records and Hill spent a week at Mayfair Studios in London with the group recording the song and its B-side. Backing vocals on the record were supplied by Alan Carvell, who also went on to be one of two backing singers in the Eurovision performance.

More information: Metro

The song was co-published by Paper Music, which was a year-old publishing company owned by Billy Lawrie -himself a songwriter and brother of singer Lulu. Choreographer Chrissie Whickham, a former member of dance troupe Hot Gossip, spent two days with the group working on the dance routine.

The lyrics of the song are largely meaningless, although it can be argued that they are about making the decision to commit to a serious relationship.

On 4 April, the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest was staged in Dublin. In a close contest throughout the voting procedure with no less than five different songs taking the lead at various stages, Making Your Mind Up managed to secure a victory with 136 points, beating second-placed Germany by a small margin of four.

Making Your Mind Up went to No.1 in the UK following the victory and remained there for three weeks, becoming one of the biggest selling songs of the year. It also saw the group in high demand throughout Europe, with the single hitting No.1 in many countries and charting in the top ten in Australia.

The record eventually sold four million copies worldwide. The single began a run of 20 UK hits for Bucks Fizz and was quickly followed up by Piece of the Action and debut album, Bucks Fizz. At the end of the decade, Making Your Mind Up was No.47 in the UK top selling singles of the 1980s.

More information: The Sun

And try to look as if you don't care less
But if you want to see some more
Bending the rules of the game will let you find
The one you're looking for
And then you can show that you think you know
You're making your mind up.
 

Bucks Fizz

THE FALKLAND ISLANDS, A CONFLICT OF SOVEREIGNTY

The Falkland Islands Flag

Today, The Grandma has been reading about the Falkland Islands, an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf whose history and sovereignty is well-known by being a continuous centre of dispute between the United Kingdom and Argentina.

It is an old diplomatic conflict that started in 1774 between the United Kingdom and Spain; it had another important episode when the United Kingdom claimed sovereignty over the Falkland Islands on a day like today in 1833, during the 1960s, and in 1982 when the conflict finished in a war between the United Kingdom and Argentina.

The Falkland Islands, in Spanish Islas Malvinas, is an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean on the Patagonian Shelf. The principal islands are about 483 kilometres east of South America's southern Patagonian coast, and about 1,210 kilometres from the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, at a latitude of about 52°S. The archipelago, with an area of 12,000 square kilometres, comprises East Falkland, West Falkland and 776 smaller islands.

As a British overseas territory, the Falklands have internal self-governance, and the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their defence and foreign affairs.

The Falkland Islands' capital is Stanley on East Falkland.

More information: Falkland Islands Government

Controversy exists over the Falklands' discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans. At various times, the islands have had French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain reasserted its rule in 1833, but Argentina maintains its claim to the islands.

In April 1982, Argentine forces occupied the islands. British administration was restored two months later at the end of the Falklands War.

Almost all Falklanders favour the archipelago remaining a UK overseas territory. Its sovereignty status is part of an ongoing dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom.

The population, 3,398 inhabitants in 2016, consists primarily of native-born Falkland Islanders, the majority of British descent. Other ethnicities include French, Gibraltarian and Scandinavian. Immigration from the United Kingdom, the South Atlantic island of Saint Helena, and Chile has reversed a population decline. The predominant and official language is English. Under the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983, Falkland Islanders are British citizens.

More information: Falkland Islands

The islands lie on the boundary of the subantarctic oceanic and tundra climate zones, and both major islands have mountain ranges reaching 700 m. They are home to large bird populations, although many no longer breed on the main islands because of competition from introduced species.

Major economic activities include fishing, tourism and sheep farming, with an emphasis on high-quality wool exports. Oil exploration, licensed by the Falkland Islands Government, remains controversial as a result of maritime disputes with Argentina. 

The Falkland Islands

The name Falkland Islands comes from Falkland Sound, the strait that separates the two main islands. The name Falkland was applied to the channel by John Strong, captain of an English expedition which landed on the islands in 1690. Strong named the strait in honour of Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount of Falkland, the Treasurer of the Navy who sponsored his journey. The Viscount's title originates from the town of Falkland, Scotland -the town's name likely comes from a Gaelic term referring to an enclosure, but it could less plausibly be from the Anglo-Saxon term folkland. The name Falklands was not applied to the islands until 1765, when British captain John Byron of the Royal Navy, claimed them for King George III as Falkland's Islands. The term Falklands is a standard abbreviation used to refer to the islands.

The Spanish name for the archipelago, Islas Malvinas, derives from the French Îles Malouines -the name given to the islands by French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bougainville in 1764. Bougainville, who founded the islands' first settlement, named the area after the port of Saint-Malo, the point of departure for his ships and colonists. The port, located in the Brittany region of western France, was named after St. Malo or Maclou, the Christian evangelist who founded the city.

More information: BBC

At the twentieth session of the United Nations General Assembly, the Fourth Committee determined that, in all languages other than Spanish, all UN documentation would designate the territory as Falkland Islands (Malvinas). In Spanish, the territory was designated as Islas Malvinas (Falkland Islands). The nomenclature used by the United Nations for statistical processing purposes is Falkland Islands (Malvinas). 

Although Fuegians from Patagonia may have visited the Falkland Islands in prehistoric times, the islands were uninhabited when Europeans first discovered them. Claims of discovery date back to the 16th century, but no consensus exists on whether early explorers discovered the Falklands or other islands in the South Atlantic. The first recorded landing on the islands is attributed to English captain John Strong, who, en route to Peru's and Chile's littoral in 1690, discovered the Falkland Sound and noted the islands' water and game.

The Falklands remained uninhabited until the 1764 establishment of Port Louis on East Falkland by French captain Louis Antoine de Bougainville, and the 1766 foundation of Port Egmont on Saunders Island by British captain John MacBride. Whether or not the settlements were aware of each other's existence is debated by historians.

More information: Lonely Planet

In 1766, France surrendered its claim on the Falklands to Spain, which renamed the French colony Puerto Soledad the following year. Problems began when Spain discovered and captured Port Egmont in 1770. War was narrowly avoided by its restitution to Britain in 1771.

Both the British and Spanish settlements coexisted in the archipelago until 1774, when Britain's new economic and strategic considerations led it to voluntarily withdraw from the islands, leaving a plaque claiming the Falklands for King George III.  

The Falkland Islands

Spain's Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata became the only governmental presence in the territory. West Falkland was left abandoned, and Puerto Soledad became mostly a prison camp.

Amid the British invasions of the Río de la Plata during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, the islands' governor evacuated the archipelago in 1806; Spain's remaining colonial garrison followed suit in 1811, except for gauchos and fishermen who remained voluntarily.

Thereafter, the archipelago was visited only by fishing ships; its political status was undisputed until 1820, when Colonel David Jewett, an American privateer working for the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, informed anchored ships about Buenos Aires' 1816 claim to Spain's territories in the South Atlantic. Since the islands had no permanent inhabitants, in 1823 Buenos Aires granted German-born merchant Luis Vernet permission to conduct fishing activities and exploit feral cattle in the archipelago.

Buenos Aires attempted to retain influence over the settlement by installing a garrison, but a mutiny in 1832 was followed the next year by the arrival of British forces who reasserted Britain's rule. The British troops departed after completing their mission, leaving the area without formal government.

More information: The Guardian

In 1840, the Falklands became a Crown colony, and Scottish settlers subsequently established an official pastoral community. Four years later, nearly everyone relocated to Port Jackson, considered a better location for government, and merchant Samuel Lafone began a venture to encourage British colonisation.

Stanley, as Port Jackson was soon renamed, officially became the seat of government in 1845. Early in its history, Stanley had a negative reputation due to cargo-shipping losses; only in emergencies would ships rounding Cape Horn stop at the port. Nevertheless, the Falklands' geographic location proved ideal for ship repairs and the Wrecking Trade, the business of selling and buying shipwrecks and their cargoes. Aside from this trade, commercial interest in the archipelago was minimal due to the low-value hides of the feral cattle roaming the pastures. 

Economic growth began only after the Falkland Islands Company, which bought out Lafone's failing enterprise in 1851, successfully introduced Cheviot sheep for wool farming, spurring other farms to follow suit. 

More information:  The Guardian

In 1881, the Falkland Islands became financially independent of Britain. For more than a century, the Falkland Islands Company dominated the trade and employment of the archipelago; in addition, it owned most housing in Stanley, which greatly benefited from the wool trade with the UK.

In the first half of the 20th century, the Falklands served an important role in Britain's territorial claims to subantarctic islands and a section of Antarctica. The Falklands also played a minor role in the two world wars as a military base aiding control of the South Atlantic. 

After the WWII ended, the Falklands economy was affected by declining wool prices and the political uncertainty resulting from the revived sovereignty dispute between the United Kingdom and Argentina. 

21 May 1982, Argentina surrendered to the UK

Simmering tensions between the UK and Argentina increased during the second half of the century, when Argentine President Juan Perón asserted sovereignty over the archipelago.

The sovereignty dispute intensified during the 1960s, shortly after the United Nations passed a resolution on decolonisation which Argentina interpreted as favourable to its position. In 1965, the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2065, calling for both states to conduct bilateral negotiations to reach a peaceful settlement of the dispute. From 1966 until 1968, the UK confidentially discussed with Argentina the transfer of the Falklands, assuming its judgement would be accepted by the islanders.

An agreement on trade ties between the archipelago and the mainland was reached in 1971 and, consequently, Argentina built a temporary airfield at Stanley in 1972. Nonetheless, Falklander dissent, as expressed by their strong lobby in the UK Parliament, and tensions between the UK and Argentina effectively limited sovereignty negotiations until 1977.

Concerned at the expense of maintaining the Falkland Islands in an era of budget cuts, the UK again considered transferring sovereignty to Argentina in the early Thatcher government. Substantive sovereignty talks again ended by 1981, and the dispute escalated with passing time.

In April 1982, the disagreement became an armed conflict when Argentina invaded the Falklands and other British territories in the South Atlantic, briefly occupying them until a UK expeditionary force retook the territories in June.

After the war, the United Kingdom expanded its military presence, building RAF Mount Pleasant and increasing the size of its garrison. 

More information: The Atlantic

Based on Lord Shackleton's recommendations, the Falklands diversified from a sheep-based monoculture into an economy of tourism and, with the establishment of the Falklands Exclusive Economic Zone, fisheries. The road network was also made more extensive, and the construction of RAF Mount Pleasant allowed access to long haul flights. Oil exploration also began, with indications of possible commercially exploitable deposits in the Falklands basin. 

Argentina and the UK re-established diplomatic relations in 1990; relations have since deteriorated as neither has agreed on the terms of future sovereignty discussions. Disputes between the governments have led some analysts to predict a growing conflict of interest between Argentina and Great Britain... because of the recent expansion of the fishing industry in the waters surrounding the Falklands.

The United Kingdom and Argentina both claim the Falkland Islands. The UK bases its position on its continuous administration of the islands since 1833 and the islanders' right to self-determination as set out in the UN Charter. Argentina's position is that it acquired the Falklands from Spain when it achieved independence in 1816, and that, in 1833, the UK expelled Argentine authorities and settlers from the islands with a threat of greater force and, afterwards, barred Argentines from resettling the islands.

In 2009, the British prime minister, Gordon Brown, had a meeting with the Argentine president, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, and said that there would be no further talks over the sovereignty of the Falklands.

In March 2013, the Falkland Islands held a referendum on its political status: 99.8% of voters favoured remaining a British overseas territory. Argentina does not recognise the Falkland Islanders as a partner in negotiations.

More information: The Sydney Morning Herald

The Falklands War was the most managed story

in the history of journalism...

total control of communication.

Morley Safer

GIBRALTAR NATIONAL DAY, SOVEREIGNTY REFERENDUM

Gibraltar

Today, The Grandma has travelled to Gibraltar to assist to the celebrations of its National Day.

Tomorrow, September 11 is the Catalan National Day and The Grandma wants to remember the history of Gibraltar and Catalonia during the 18th century, two lands affected directly by the Utrecht Treaty, two lands with equal dreams and different destinies.

The Grandma has visited Catalan Bay, a place that demonstrates the links between Gibraltarian and Catalan people.

During the flight from Barcelona to Gibraltar, The Grandma has studied a new lesson of her Ms. Excel course.

18. Macros (I) (Spanish Version)

Gibraltar is a British Overseas Territory located at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula. It has an area of 6.7 km2 and is bordered to the north by Spain. The landscape is dominated by the Rock of Gibraltar at the foot of which is a densely populated town area, home to over 30,000 people, primarily Gibraltarians. 

In 1704, Anglo-Dutch forces captured Gibraltar from Spain during the War of the Spanish Succession on behalf of the Habsburg claim to the Spanish throne. The territory was ceded to Great Britain in perpetuity under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

More information: Government of Gibraltar

During World War II it was an important base for the Royal Navy as it controlled the entrance and exit to the Mediterranean Sea, the Strait of Gibraltar, which is only 14.3 km wide at this naval choke point. It remains strategically important, with half the world's seaborne trade passing through the strait. Today Gibraltar's economy is based largely on tourism, online gambling, financial services and cargo ship refuelling.

The sovereignty of Gibraltar is a point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations because Spain asserts a claim to the territory. Gibraltarians rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum and, in a 2002 referendum, the idea of shared sovereignty was also rejected.

The Grandma visits Gibraltar

Gibraltar National Day, celebrated annually on 10 September, is the official national day of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar.

The day commemorates Gibraltar's first sovereignty referendum of 1967, in which Gibraltarian voters were asked whether they wished to either pass under Spanish sovereignty, or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government.

The Gibraltar sovereignty referendum of 1967 was held on 10 September 1967, in which Gibraltarian citizens were asked whether they wished to pass under Spanish sovereignty, with Gibraltarians keeping their British citizenship and a special status for Gibraltar within Spain; or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government.

Further to resolution 2070 of the United Nations General Assembly that was approved on 16 December 1965, the governments of Spain and the United Kingdom started talks on Gibraltar in 1966.

More information: The Gibraltar Parliament

On 18 May 1966, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, Fernando Castiella made a formal proposal to Britain comprising three clauses:

-The cancellation of the Treaty of Utrecht and the subsequent return of Gibraltar to Spain.

-The presence of the British in the Royal Navy base in Gibraltar, its use being subject to a specific Anglo-Spanish agreement.

-A Personal Statute for Gibraltarians, under United Nations guarantee, protecting their cultural, social and economic interest in Gibraltar or anywhere else in Spain, including their British nationality. "(An) appropriate [..] administrative formula" should also be agreed on.

The options presented to Gibraltarians in a referendum were:

-To pass under Spanish sovereignty in accordance with the terms proposed by the Spanish Government; or

-Retain their link with Britain, with democratic local institutions. Britain retaining its present responsibilities.

The Grandma visits Gibraltar

A new constitution was passed in 1969. The same year, the Spanish government closed the border between Spain and Gibraltar, cutting off all contacts and severely restricting movement. The border was not fully reopened until February 1985.

The Special Committee on Decolonization was informed in advance of the referendum and invited to observe. The invitation was declined and instead the UN General Assembly passed Resolution 2353, which requested that the United Kingdom enter negotiations with Spain, then under the dictatorship of General Franco, and criticised the United Kingdom for holding a referendum.

Resolution 2353 (XXII) was supported by seventy-three countries -mainly Latin American, Arab, African and Eastern European countries-, rejected by nineteen (United Kingdom and the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations), while twenty-seven countries abstained (Western Europe and the United States).

More information: Historic UK

In 1992, the Chief Minister of Gibraltar Joe Bossano, travelled to the United Nations to argue for the right to self-determination inspiring the formation of the Self Determination for Gibraltar Group (SDGG) which was at the time headed by Dennis Matthews, a one-time active member of the Integration with Britain Party (IWBP). In order to generate popular support for self-determination they held the first National Day at John Mackintosh Square (the Piazza) on 10 September 1992 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the day the 1967 sovereignty referendum was held on. Coincidentally, the 10 September was also the day the Gibraltar Legislative Council became representative and responsible for internal affairs in 1964.

The first National Day was so successful that the avalanche of people that spontaneously turned up could not fit into John Mackintosh Square. The Government then took the responsibility of providing some help organising the event, since it fostered the right to self-determination that the Gibraltarians had been demanding at the United Nations since 1963. Therefore, the Government declared the 10 September a public holiday and gave the SDGG a grant for them to administer. In 1993 the venue was changed to the larger Grand Casemates Square, until it was again changed in 1998 to the even larger Naval Ground.

The active opposition of the Spanish Government to self-determination combined with the negative posture of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, strengthened the resolution of the vast majority of the Gibraltarians to press ahead for their decolonisation by the year 2000 in accordance with the high principles of the Charter and the target date set by the United Nations to eradicate colonialism.

Gibraltar

Instead, the British Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, proposed joint sovereignty with Spain, which further intensified the sense of national identity reinforced by the National Day. The 10th National Day, held in 2001 included a speech by William Serfaty, the then leader of the SDGG, which stressed the themes of national identity, unity, resisting Spanish pressure and decolonisation.

Subsequent National Days have comparatively been quieter affairs with fewer invited guests and shorter political speeches. In 2007 the running of the political rally was taken over by the Government from the SDGG. In July 2008 the Government announced they would change the format of National Day to take effect the same year. The main change was their decision to no longer organise a political rally. The reason given was to emphasise civic celebration of Gibraltar rather than political revindication. Other changes included relocating the main event to the smaller John Mackintosh Square from Grand Casemates Square, appointing the Mayor of Gibraltar to conduct the main event rather than any political leader, the presentation of the Gibraltar Medallion of Honour and the reading of the Gibraltar National Day Declaration.

More information: Visit Gibraltar

The official Gibraltar National Day events begin with a children’s fancy dress competition held at the lobby of the Parliament building in Main Street followed by a street party at John Mackintosh Square where food and drink stalls are set up providing Gibraltarian food such as calentita. Later a selected school choir sings songs with a Gibraltar theme, namely Llévame Donde Nací and Virgencita de Europa.

This is followed by the main event, the Mayor's recitation of the names of the recipients of the Gibraltar Medallion of Honour and the reading of the Gibraltar National Day Declaration from atop the City Hall's balcony.

This was previously followed by the traditional release from atop the Parliament building of 30,000 red and white balloons, representing Gibraltar's population, which had featured on this day since 1992. The balloon release tradition has been ended this year due to the threat that it poses to wildlife, marine wildlife in particular. In the meantime, the school choir leads the general public in the singing of the Gibraltar Anthem.

Gibraltar

A funday for children featuring bouncy castles and fairground rides is then held at Grand Casemates Square. There is live music is played all afternoon at Governor’s Parade (the Piazzella) and the Rock on the Rock Club, all free of charge, as opposed to the Gibraltar Music Festival a paid event leading up to national day. Since 2007, there has been a verbena for the older members of the community. The day culminates with a half-hour-long synchronised fireworks display released from the Detached Mole in the Gibraltar Harbour at night followed by a rock concert.

In July 2008, the Chief Minister of Gibraltar, Peter Caruana announced that the Government would establish a civic award scheme, to be known as the Gibraltar Medallion of Honour, which would be awarded by Parliament. The award is formally presented annually by the Mayor of Gibraltar prior to the release of the balloons on Gibraltar National Day.

More information: The Guardian

Catalan Bay, in Spanish La Caleta, is a bay and fishing town in Gibraltar, on the eastern side of The Rock away from Westside.

Although the origin of Catalan Bay's name is documented, a couple of theories co-exist.

Documentary evidence suggests that the bay is named after a group of around 350 Catalan servicemen believed to have settled there after having assisted the Anglo-Dutch forces who captured Gibraltar during the War of Spanish Succession on 4 August 1704.

Evidence supports the theory that Catalans settled in Catalan Bay giving rise to the above etymological definition.

The name La Caleta, meaning small bay or cove, considerably pre-dates that of Catalan Bay. The fishing villages of La Atunara (La Línea de la Concepción, Cádiz) and La Caleta are mentioned in a Royal Dispatch of 6 March 1634, being under the jurisdiction of the Tercio del Mar de Marbella y Estepona in the Kingdom of Granada.

Since it has been called La Caleta for much longer than it has been called Catalan Bay.

The first mention of Catalan Bay was probably, at least, in the mid-eighteenth century, between the second and third siege of Gibraltar (1727-1779). It already appeared on William Faden's map (dressed in 1769-1775 and published in 1782), or in John Cheevers's map (1785). Before that, it probably was named Catalan Battery, Catalan Beach or Playa de los Catalanes.

The Grandma visits Catalan Bay

In 1704, during the capture of Gibraltar by an Anglo-Dutch combined operation, an expedition landed there of around 350 Catalans followers of Charles of Austria and commanded by Prince Georg von Hessen Darmstadt (Catalonia's deputy and delegate of Charles of Austria) and general Joan Baptista Basset. 

They most likely came to Gibraltar in at least five ships, as among the lists of Catalan expeditionaries there are five vessel owners from Arenys de Mar, Barcelona, Cubelles, Mataró, and Sant Feliu de Guíxols. The Catalans formed two companies, an artillery company -called Catalan Battery- and an infantry company of mountain fusiliers -called Catalan Company of Miquelets, commanded by captain Jaume Burguy.

Both protected the isthmus of Gibraltar and attacked mountain areas of the Rock against Spanish grenadiers.

Some of the surnames of the Catalans who participated in the conquest are: Andreu, Armenter, Auger, Basset, Bertran, Besart, Boix, Bonavida, Bosch, Burguy, Canovas, Caramany, Carreras, Casamitjana, Castells, Cateura, Clavell, Constans, Corrons, Cortès, Esplugas, Estanyol, Estaper, Esteve, Fabregas, Ferrer, Fonollós, Fontanet, Freixes, Frutó, Gil, Goy, Llofriu, Llopis, Martí, Massana, Matalonga, Mulet, Navarro, Nebot, Oliver, Ortas, Pausà, Pi, Pons, Pujol, Rabassa, Ribas, Roca, Rossell, Roset, Rovira, Ruaix, Salvat, Sanromà, Serrallonga, Siurana, Soler, Trebó, Trias, Trullàs, Vidal, Virolà, Viudes.

More information: ThoughtCo.

Subsequently, the conquest, some of these Catalan soldiers settled in Gibraltar, after the departure of the majority of troops used in the conquest, and helped establish the first military checkpoint of Gibraltar. The Catalan Alfons de la Capella, lawyer of the Royal Council of Catalonia, became a judge in Gibraltar. The Catalan Josep Corrons was appointed Alcaide of the Sea, responsible for the harbour, and later was appointed Sergeant Major of Gibraltar. The Catalan Andreu Martí, one of the first to take the stronghold of the port in the conquest of the Rock, was responsible for directing the work of the prisoners after the conquest. The Catalan Jeroni Fàbregas was responsible for the distribution of ammunition.

In the 1705 siege, the Catalan soldiers fought again in defence of Gibraltar, especially in an area then called Catalan Guard or Catalan Post in Wolf's Leap (Johann Argathelu map at first third of the eighteenth century, Gabriel Bodenehr map 1720, Johann Bowles brothers map 1727...)

In 1709, Catalan Josep Valls, a Gibraltar resident, collaborating with Catalan traders Salvador Feliu de la Penya, Joan Verivol, Josep Grasses, and Josep Boigues, created a commercial company called Companyia Nova de Gibraltar (New Company of Gibraltar), in order to replace the monopoly of Cádiz in ocean trade, that would endure until 1723.

The Grandma visits Catalan Bay

Historically, Catalan Bay had been populated by Genoese fishermen who were part of a much larger settlement pattern along the eastern coast of The Rock during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

In the eighteenth century Genoese was so widely spoken in Gibraltar that government notices were also published in this language -alongside English and Spanish. Genoese was spoken in La Caleta well into the nineteenth century, dying out in the early decades of the twentieth. There has been some discussion about the possibility that the British may have mixed up Catalans with Genoese but, according to some opinions, it is by no means clear why they would suffer such a confusion, especially since there is other evidence which demonstrates that the British were perfectly aware that the residents of La Caleta were Genoese: the orders for the siege of 1727 refer to this bay as the Genoese Cove and the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century censuses record large numbers of people born in Genoa, not in Catalonia.

However, the seventeenth-century French map Plan de Catalan Bay ou la Caleta, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France, which showed houses and lists of the inhabitants living in Catalan Bay before the village was completely built, shows various Catalan surnames among its inhabitants (Borràs, Canovas, Estella, Fabre, Fava, Palmé, Sans, Serra, Vila) even though they were not a majority compared to Genoese surnames, only a 12%.

More information: The Telegraph

Therefore, there is documentary evidence that among the first inhabitants of Catalan Bay there were Catalans, despite the fact that they were few in number compared to the Genoese. Also, there is considerable evidence that during the seventeenth century Catalan fishermen travelled to the south of Spain every summer in order to fish for anchovie, which were quite plentiful in this part of the world. 

Their main base was at the mouth of the river Palmones, which is more or less opposite Gibraltar. It was an ideal place to beach their boats and salt their catch in readiness for taking back home at the end of the season. It should also be noted that among the Catalans who participated in the conquest of 1704 there were some fishermen.

During the nineteenth century only fishermen were permitted to live in Catalan Bay. They were required to have a fishing permit granted to them by the Governor and only a limited number of permits were issued. The families who live in the village today are mainly descendants of these Genoese fishermen, and are colloquially known as caleteños.

More information: Time Travel Turtle

I am now in Gibraltar.

It is a large place and there does not seem to be room in this letter,

in which to express my feelings about Moors in bare legs

and six thousand Red-coats and to hear Englishmen speak again.

Richard Harding Davis