MAASTRICHT TREATY, LEAD TO THE CREATION OF THE EU

The Grandma visits Maastricht

Today, The Grandma has flown to The Netherlands to commemorate the 28th anniversary of the signature of the Maastricht Treaty, also and officially known as the Treaty on European Union. This treaty signed by the members of the European Communities was the beginning of a further European integration.

European Union could be a great union of nations if its members are able to respect each other, attend its obligations and accomplish its rules. Nowadays, the European Union is under a great age of transformation after the Brexit and the rising of the ancient nations that claim their rights and reclaim respect and comprehension.

The Maastricht Treaty, officially the Treaty on European Union, was a treaty signed on 7 February 1992 by the members of the European Communities in Maastricht, Netherlands, to further European integration.

On 9–10 December 1991, the same city hosted the European Council which drafted the treaty. The treaty founded the European Union and established its pillar structure which stayed in place until the Lisbon Treaty came into force in 2009. The treaty also greatly expanded the competences of the EEC/EU and led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro.

The Maastricht Treaty reformed and amended the treaties establishing the European Communities, the EU's first pillar. It renamed European Economic Community to European Community to reflect its expanded competences beyond economic matters.

More information: Europa

The Maastricht Treaty also created two new pillars of the EU on Common Foreign and Security Policy and Cooperation in the Fields of Justice and Home Affairs (respectively the second and third pillars), which replaced the former informal intergovernmental cooperation bodies named TREVI and European Political Cooperation on EU Foreign policy coordination.

The Maastricht Treaty (TEU) and all pre-existing treaties has subsequently been further amended by the treaties of Amsterdam (1997), Nice (2001) and Lisbon (2007). Today it is one of two treaties forming the constitutional basis of the European Union (EU), the other being the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union.

European Union Flags

While the current version of the TEU entered into force in 2009, following the Treaty of Lisbon (2007), the older form of the same document was implemented by the Treaty of Maastricht (1992).

The signing of the Treaty of Maastricht took place on 7 February 1992.

The Dutch government, by virtue of holding Presidency of the Council of the European Union during the negotiations in the second half of 1991, arranged a ceremony inside the government buildings of the Limburg province on the river Maas (Meuse).

Representatives from the twelve member states of the European Communities were present, and signed the treaty as plenipotentiaries, marking the conclusion of the period of negotiations.

Only three countries held referendums (France, Denmark and Ireland -all required by their respective constitutions). The process of ratifying the treaty was fraught with difficulties in three states.

More information: Maastricht Working on Europe

In Denmark, the first Danish Maastricht Treaty referendum was held on 2 June 1992 and ratification of the treaty was rejected by a margin of 50.7% to 49.3%. Subsequently, alterations were made to the treaty through the addition of the Edinburgh Agreement which lists four Danish exceptions, and this treaty was ratified the following year on 18 May 1993 after a second referendum was held in Denmark, with legal effect after the formally granted royal assent on 9 June 1993.

In September 1992, a referendum in France only narrowly supported the ratification of the treaty, with 50.8% in favour. This narrow vote for ratification in France, known at the time as the 'petite oui', led Jacques Delors to comment that Europe began as an elitist project in which it was believed that all that was required was to convince the decision-makers. That phase of benign despotism is over.

Maastricht, The Netherlands

In the United Kingdom, an opt-out from the treaty's social provisions was opposed in Parliament by the opposition Labour and Liberal Democrat MPs and the treaty itself by the Maastricht Rebels within the governing Conservative Party.

The number of rebels exceeded the Conservative majority in the House of Commons, and thus the government of John Major came close to losing the confidence of the House. In accordance with British constitutional convention, specifically that of parliamentary sovereignty, ratification in the UK was not subject to approval by referendum. Despite this, the British constitutional historian Vernon Bogdanor suggests that there was a clear constitutional rationale for requiring a referendum based on the allocation of legislative power.

At the end of January 2020 (GMT), the UK left the EU and so withdrew from this Treaty.

The TEU entered into force on 1 November 1993. The treaty led to the creation of the euro. One of the obligations of the treaty for the members was to keep sound fiscal policies, with debt limited to 60% of GDP and annual deficits no greater than 3% of GDP. This obligation has not been met, with debt to GDP levels increasing steadily in most countries in eurozone since the treaty was signed with the average for the zone standing at 85%, and much higher for some countries, e.g. France, where debt to GDP ratios reached 98% in 2019, or Greece at 181%.

The treaty also created what was commonly referred to as the pillar structure of the European Union.

More information: News Beezer

The treaty established the three pillars of the European Union -one supranational pillar created from three European Communities (which included the European Economic Community (EEC), the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Atomic Energy Community), the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar, and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar. 

The first pillar was where the EU's supra-national institutions -the Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice- had the most power and influence. The other two pillars were essentially more intergovernmental in nature with decisions being made by committees composed of member states' politicians and officials.

Maastricht, The Netherlands

All three pillars were the extensions of existing policy structures. The European Community pillar was the continuation of the European Economic Community with the Economic being dropped from the name to represent the wider policy base given by the Maastricht Treaty.

Coordination in foreign policy had taken place since the beginning of the 1970s under the name of European Political Cooperation (EPC), which had been first written into the treaties by the Single European Act but not as a part of the EEC. 

While the Justice and Home Affairs pillar extended cooperation in law enforcement, criminal justice, asylum, and immigration and judicial cooperation in civil matters, some of these areas had already been subject to intergovernmental cooperation under the Schengen Implementation Convention of 1990.

The creation of the pillar system was the result of the desire by many member states to extend the European Economic Community to the areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice, and judicial cooperation. This desire was set off against the misgivings of other member states, notably the United Kingdom, over adding areas which they considered to be too sensitive to be managed by the supra-national mechanisms of the European Economic Community.

More information: All Time Lists

The agreed compromise was that instead of renaming the European Economic Community as the European Union, the treaty would establish a legally separate European Union comprising the renamed European Economic Community, and the inter-governmental policy areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice, judicial cooperation.

The structure greatly limited the powers of the European Commission, the European Parliament and the European Court of Justice to influence the new intergovernmental policy areas, which were to be contained with the second and third pillars: foreign policy and military matters (the CFSP pillar) and criminal justice and cooperation in civil matters (the JHA pillar).

Treaty on European Union

In addition, the treaty established the European Committee of the Regions (CoR). CoR is the European Union's (EU) assembly of local and regional representatives that provides sub-national authorities with a direct voice within the EU's institutional framework.

The Maastricht criteria (also known as the convergence criteria) are the criteria for European Union member states to enter the third stage of European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) and adopt the euro as their currency.

The four criteria are defined in article 121 of the treaty establishing the European Community. They impose control over inflation, public debt and the public deficit, exchange rate stability and the convergence of interest rates.

More information: European Central Bank

1. Inflation rates. No more than 1.5 percentage points higher than the average of the three best performing (lowest inflation) member states of the EU.

2. Government finance.

Annual government deficit.

The ratio of the annual government deficit to gross domestic product (GDP) must not exceed 3% at the end of the preceding fiscal year. If not, it is at least required to reach a level close to 3%. Only exceptional and temporary excesses would be granted for exceptional cases.

Government debt.

The ratio of gross government debt to GDP must not exceed 60% at the end of the preceding fiscal year. Even if the target cannot be achieved due to the specific conditions, the ratio must have sufficiently diminished and must be approaching the reference value at a satisfactory pace.

As of the end of 2014, of the countries in the Eurozone, only Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovakia, Luxembourg, and Finland still met this target.

3. Exchange rate. Applicant countries should have joined the exchange-rate mechanism (ERM II) under the European Monetary System (EMS) for two consecutive years and should not have devalued its currency during the period.

4. Long-term interest rates. The nominal long-term interest rate must not be more than 2 percentage points higher than in the three lowest inflation member states.

The purpose of setting the criteria is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone even with the inclusion of new member states.

Download Treaty on European Union (Maastricht, 1992)

Diversity?

Undoubtedly  it  is  correct to  say  that  Europe 

thrives  on  its  diversity. 

We  want  to  preserve  the  differences  between 

our  nations, between  the  regions  of  Europe, 

the  diversity  of  languages  and  mentalities. 

We   cannot  and  will  not  harmonize 

everything  which  could  be  harmonized.

Angela Merkel

1944, BENELUX: BELGIUM, NETHERLANDS & LUXEMBOURG

Benelux

Today, The Grandma has read about Benelux, a union and formal international cooperation between Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg that was constituted on a day like today in 1944. The Grandma wants to visit these countries in a few months and she has thought that knowing more things about them is a good way to prepare her travel.

Before searching information about Benelux, The Grandma has studied a new lesson of her Ms. Excel course.

Chapter 16. Excel Tables (V) (Spanish Version)

The Benelux Union, also known as simply Benelux, is a politico-economic union and formal international intergovernmental cooperation of three neighboring states in western Europe: Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

The name Benelux is a portmanteau formed from joining the first two or three letters of each country's name -Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg- and was first used to name the customs agreement that initiated the union, signed in 1944. It is now used more generally to refer to the geographic, economic and cultural grouping of the three countries.

Since 1944, when a customs union was introduced, cooperation among the governments of Belgium, the Netherlands and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg has been a firmly established practice. The initial form of economic cooperation expanded steadily over time, leading in 1958 to the signing of the Treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union.

More information: Benelux

Initially, the purpose of cooperation among the three partners was to put an end to customs barriers at their borders and ensure free movement of persons, goods and services among the three countries. It was the first example of international economic integration in Europe since the Second World War. The three countries therefore foreshadowed and provided the model for future European integration, such as the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community (EEC).

Manneken Pis, Brussels, Belgium

The three partners continue to play this pioneering role. They also launched the Schengen process, which came into operation in 1985, promoting it from the outset. 

Benelux cooperation has been constantly adapted and now goes much further than mere economic cooperation, extending to new and topical policy areas connected with security, sustainable development and the economy. Benelux models its cooperation on that of the European Union and is able to take up and pursue original ideas.

The Benelux countries also work together in the so called The Pentalateral Energy Forum a regional cooperation group formed of five members -the Benelux states, France, Germany, Austria, and Switzerland. Formed ten years ago, the ministers for energy from the various countries represent a total of 200 million residents and 40% of the European electricity network.

On 17 June 2008 Belgium, in all its component parts, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed a new Benelux Treaty in The Hague. The purpose of the Benelux Union is to deepen and expand cooperation among the three countries so that it can continue its role as precursor within the European Union and strengthen and improve cross-border cooperation at every level. Through better cooperation between the countries the Benelux strives to promote the prosperity and welfare of the citizens of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

More information: Belgium

Benelux works together on the basis of an annual plan embedded in a four-year joint work programme.

Benelux seeks region-to-region cooperation, be it with France and Germany (North-Rhine-Westphalia) or beyond with the Baltic States, the Nordic Council, the Visegrad countries, or even further. In 2018 a renewed political declaration was adopted between Benelux and North-Rhine-Westphalia to give the cooperation a further impetus.

Some examples of recent results of Benelux cooperation: automatic level recognition of all diplomas and degrees within the Benelux, a new Benelux Treaty on Police cooperation, common road inspections and a Benelux pilot with digital consignment notes. The Benelux is also committed to working together on adaptation to climate change. In 2018, a Benelux Youth Parliament was created.

The main institutions of the Union are the Committee of Ministers, the Council of the Union, the General Secretariat, the InterParliamentary Consultative Council and the Benelux Court of Justice while the Benelux Office for Intellectual Property cover the same territory but are not part of the Benelux Union.

Amsterdam, Netherlands

The Benelux General Secretariat is located in Brussels. It is the central platform of the Benelux Union cooperation. It handles the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the Council of Benelux Union and the various committees and working parties. The General Secretariat provides day-to-day support for the Benelux cooperation on the substantive, procedural, diplomatic and logistical levels.

The presidency of the Benelux is held in turn by the three countries for a period of one year. Luxembourg holds the presidency in 2019.

In addition to cooperation based on a Treaty, there is also political cooperation in the Benelux context, including summits of the Benelux government leaders. In 2019 a Benelux summit was held in Luxembourg.

A Benelux Parliament, originally referred to as an Interparliamentary Consultative Council, was created in 1955. This parliamentary assembly is composed of 21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourg parliament.

More information: Lonely Planet

On 20 January 2015, the governments of the three countries, including, as far as Belgium is concerned, the community and regional governments, signed in Brussels the Treaty of the Benelux Interparliamentary Assembly. This treaty will enter into force on the 1st of August 2019. This means the 1955 Convention on the Consultative Interparliamentary Council for the Benelux expires. Moreover, the current official name has been largely obsolete in daily practice for a number of years now. Both internally in the Benelux and in external references, the name Benelux Parliament has been used de facto for a number of years now.

In 1944, exiled representatives of the three countries signed the London Customs Convention, the treaty that established the Benelux Customs Union. Ratified in 1947, the treaty was in force from 1948 until it was superseded by the Benelux Economic Union.

Lower City with Church, Luxembourg City

The treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union, Benelux Economische Unie, was signed on 3 February 1958 in The Hague and came into force on 1 November 1960 to promote the free movement of workers, capital, services, and goods in the region. Under the Treaty the Union implies the co-operation of economic, financial and social policies.

In 2017 the members of the Benelux, the Baltic Assembly, and three members of the Nordic Council (Sweden, Denmark and Finland), all EU-member states, sought intensifying cooperation in the Digital Single Market, as well as discussing social matters, the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, the European migrant crisis and defence cooperation. Relations with Russia, Turkey and the United Kingdom was also on the agenda.

Since 2008 the Benelux Union works together with the German Land (state) North Rhine-Westphalia.

In 2018 Benelux Union signed a declaration with France to strengthen cross-border cooperation.

More information: Government of Netherlands

In 2018 Education ministers from all three of Belgium's regions as well as from the Netherlands and Luxembourg have signed an agreement to recognise the level of all higher education diplomas between the three countries. This is unique in the EU. To continue studies or get a job in another country, applicants must get their locally earned degree recognised by the other country, which entails a lot of paperwork, fees and sometimes a months-long wait.

In 2015, the Benelux countries agreed to automatically recognise each other’s bachelor’s and master’s diplomas. Now that recognition is extended to PhDs and to so-called graduate degrees, which are earned from adult educational institutions. This means that a graduate of any of the three countries can continue their education or seek a job in the other countries without having to get their degree officially recognised.

The Treaty of Liège entered into force in 2017. As a result, Dutch, Belgian and Luxembourg inspectors may carry out joint inspections of trucks and buses in the three countries. This treaty was signed in 2014 in Liège (Belgium) by the three countries. In the meantime, on the basis of a transitional regime and pending the entry into force of the Treaty, several major Benelux road transport inspections have taken place. Under this transition regime, inspectors from neighboring countries could only act as observers. Now they can exercise all of their skills.

Benelux Map

Co-operation on the basis of this Benelux Treaty leads to a more uniform control of road transport, cost reductions, more honest competition between transport companies and better working conditions for drivers. In addition, this cooperation strengthens general road safety in the three countries.

The Benelux Treaty seeks to intensify cooperation by improving the existing situation through intensive harmonisation of controls, exchange of equipment and training of personnel in order to reduce costs and by allowing inspectors of a country to participate in Inspections in another Benelux country by exercising all their powers, which in particular enables the expertise of the specialists in each country to be obtained. In so doing, they are fully committed to road safety for citizens and create a level playing field, so that entrepreneurs inside and outside the Benelux must comply with the same rules of control.

The application of the Treaty of Liège allows the three Benelux countries to play the role of forerunners in Europe. In addition, the treaty expressly provides for the possibility of accession of other countries.

The Treaty between the Benelux countries establishing the Benelux Economic Union was limited to a period of 50 years. During the following years, and even more so after the creation of the European Union, the Benelux cooperation focused on developing other fields of activity within a constantly changing international context.

More information: Lonely Planet

At the end of the 50 years, the governments of the three Benelux countries decided to renew the agreement, taking into account the new aspects of the Benelux-cooperation –such as security– and the new federal government structure of Belgium. The original establishing treaty, set to expire in 2010, was replaced by a new legal framework (called the Treaty revising the Treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union), which was signed on 17 June 2008.

The new treaty has no set time limit and the name of the Benelux Economic Union changed to Benelux Union to reflect the broad scope on the union. The main objectives of the treaty are the continuation and enlargement of the cooperation between the three member states within a larger European context. 

The renewed treaty explicitly foresees the possibility that the Benelux countries will cooperate with other European member States or with regional cooperation structures. The new Benelux cooperation focuses on three main topics: internal market and economic union, sustainability, justice and internal affairs. The number of structures in the renewed Treaty has been reduced and thus simplified.

The Benelux Council

Five Benelux institutions remain: the Benelux Committee of Ministers, the Benelux Council, the Benelux Parliament, the Benelux Court of Justice, the Benelux Secretariat General. Beside these five institutions, the Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property is also present in this Treaty as an independent organisation.

The Committee of Ministers is the supreme decision-making body of the Benelux. It includes at least one representative at ministerial level from the three countries. It composition varies according to its agenda. The ministers determine the orientations and priorities of Benelux cooperation. The presidency of the Committee rotates between the three countries on an annual basis.

The Council is composed of senior officials from the relevant ministries. It composition varies according to its agenda. The Council's main task is to prepare the dossiers for the ministers.

The Benelux Parliament comprises 49 representatives from the parliaments of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Its members inform and advise their respective governments on all Benelux matters.

More information: Le Gouvernement du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg

The Benelux Court of Justice is an international court. Its mission is to promote uniformity in the application of Benelux legislation. When faced with difficulty interpreting a common Benelux legal rule, national courts must seek an interpretive ruling from the Benelux Court, which subsequently renders a binding decision. The members of the Court are appointed from among the judges of the Cour de cassation of Belgium, the Hoge Raad of the Netherlands and the Cour de cassation of Luxemburg.

The General Secretariat, which is based in Brussels, forms the cooperation platform of the Benelux Union . It acts as the secretariat of the Committee of Ministers, the Council and various commissions and working groups. Because the General Secretariat operates under strict neutrality, it is perfectly placed to build bridges between the various partners and stakeholders.

The General Secretariat has years of expertise in the area of Benelux cooperation and is familiar with the policy agreements and differences between the three countries. Building on what already been achieved, the General Secretariat puts its knowledge, network and experience at the service of partners and stakeholders who endorse its mission. It initiates, supports and monitors cooperation results in the areas of economy, sustainability and security.

In a greatly enlarged European Union, Benelux cooperation is a source of inspiration for Europe.

More information: Lonely Planet

Autonomy leads to empowerment.

We work hard to maintain a balance

between collaboration and cooperation and independence.

Bobby Kotick