HUAYNAPUTINA, THE MOST ACTIVE PERUVIAN VOLCANO

Huaynaputina

Yesterday, The Grandma had a meeting with a MEP. The content of the reunion is a secret and nobody knows anything except The Grandma and the MEP. The Grandma did not publish any post to not give any clue about this meeting but she has confessed they were talking about the future.

Today, The Grandma was resting at her hotel in Brussels thinking about yesterday when she has received news from Joseph de Ca'th Lon, one of her closest friends. He is visiting Peru and he has sent her some photos about the Huaynaputina, the famous volcano that erupted on a day like today in 1600 being the largest historical eruption in South America.

The Grandma loves volcanos and Joseph knows it. He has sent her some information about the Huaynaputina to know and study and The Grandma is totally excited with it. The eruption of the Huaynaputina buried twenty cities killing the most part of their inhabitants. For this reason, the Huaynaputina is also known as the Vesuvius of South America. This eruption changed the climate causing a global disruption.

Huaynaputina is a stratovolcano in a volcanic upland in southern Peru. Part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andean Volcanic Belt, it is the product of the subduction of the oceanic Nazca tectonic plate beneath the continental part of the South American tectonic plate at a rate of 10.3 centimetres per year.

Huaynaputina is a large volcanic crater, lacking an identifiable mountain profile, with an outer stratovolcano and three younger volcanic vents. The vents of Huaynaputina form a north-northwest–south-southeast trend.

More information: Smithsonian Institution

The volcano erupted several times during the Holocene, the largest eruption took place in the year 1600. The 1600 eruption was the largest historical eruption in South America, measuring 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index. It occurred on 19 February and continued with a series of events into March. 

Witnessed by the people of the city of Arequipa, its impact in the region was severe, wiping out vegetation and burying the surroundings with 2 metres of volcanic rock; it also damaged infrastructure and economic resources. The eruption had significant effects on Earth's climate, decreasing temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, causing floods, famines and cold waves in numerous places, and depositing several million tons of acid. The climate disruption caused social upheaval in many countries such as Russia and may have played a role in the onset of the Little Ice Age.

Huaynaputina has not erupted since 1600. Today there are fumaroles in Huaynaputina's amphitheatre, and hot springs occur in the region, some of which have been associated with Huaynaputina. The volcano lies in a remote region, where there is little human activity.

Joseph de Ca'th Lon visits the Huaynaputina

Still, there are about 30,000 people living in the surrounding area, with another 800,000 in Arequipa. If Huaynaputina underwent a similar eruption to its 1600 event, it would likely lead to a significantly higher death toll and cause substantial socioeconomic disruption.

The name Huaynaputina was given to the volcano after its 1600 eruption and is also spelled Huayna Putina or Guagua Putina. According to one translation, Huayna means new and Putina means fire throwing mountain, the full name meant to suggest the aggressiveness of its volcanic activity but also of the 1600 eruption being the first one at that volcano. 

Two other translations are young boiling one -perhaps a reference to earlier eruptions- or where young were boiled, which may refer to human sacrifices. Other names for the volcano include Chequepuquina, Chiquimote, Guayta, Omate and Quinistaquillas. Reportedly, the volcano El Misti was sometimes confused with and thus referred to mistakenly as Huaynaputina.

The volcano is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes. Other volcanoes in this volcanic zone from northwest to southeast include Sara Sara, Coropuna, Ampato, Sabancaya, El Misti, Ubinas, Ticsani, Tutupaca and Yucamane.

More information: Hindawi

Ubinas is the most active volcano in Peru, and El Misti, Sabancaya, Ticsani, Tutupaca, Ubinas and Yucamane -as well as Huaynaputina- have been active in historical time while Sara Sara, Coropuna, Ampato, Casiri and Chachani are considered to be dormant volcanoes. Most volcanoes of the Central Volcanic Zone are large composite volcanoes that can remain active over the span of several million years, but there are also conical stratovolcanoes with shorter lifespans.

Huaynaputina is located in the Omate and Quinistaquillas Districts, which lie within General Sánchez Cerro Province in the Moquegua Region of southern Peru. The town of Omate lies 16 kilometres southwest of Huaynaputina, while the cities of Moquegua and Arequipa are located 65 km south-southwest and 80 km north-northwest of the volcano.

There is little human activity in the area near the volcano. The region is generally remote and the terrain extreme, and thus the area around Huaynaputina is not easily accessible. A cattle grazing footpath leads from Quinistaquillas to the volcano, and it is possible to approach the volcano over surrounding ash plains.

Joseph de Ca'th Lon visits the Huaynaputina

Huaynaputina lies at an elevation of about 4,850 metres. It consists of an outer composite volcano or stratovolcano and three younger volcanic vents nested within a 2.5-kilometre wide and 400-metre deep amphitheatre. This horseshoe-shaped structure is set in the older volcano at an elevation of 4,400 m and opens eastwards.

The amphitheatre lies at the margin of a rectangular high plateau that is covered by about 2-metre-thick ash over an area of 50 square kilometres. In general, the volcano has modest dimensions and rises less than 600 m above the surrounding terrain, but the products of the volcano's 1600 eruption cover much of the region to this day especially west, north and south from the amphitheatre; these include pyroclastic flow dunes that crop out from underneath the tephra.

Deposits from the 1600 eruption and previous events also crop out within the amphitheatre walls. Another southeastward-opening landslide scar lies just north of Huaynaputina.

The oceanic Nazca tectonic plate is subducting at a rate of 10.3 centimetres per year beneath the continental part of the South American tectonic plate, and this process is responsible for volcanic activity and the uplift of the Andes mountains and Altiplano plateau. The subduction is oblique, leading to strike-slip faulting. Volcanic activity does not occur along the entire length of the Andes; where subduction is shallow, there are gaps with little volcanic activity. Between these gaps lie volcanic belts: the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Central Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone.

More information: Nature

Between 4,000–5,000 metres in elevation mean temperatures are about 6 °C with cold nights, while at Omate, mean temperatures reach 15 °C with little seasonal variation. Precipitation averages 154.8 millimetres per year, falling mainly during a summer wet season between December and March. This results in an arid climate, where little erosion occurs and volcanic products are well preserved. Vegetation in the area of Huaynaputina is scarce, and on the pumice deposits from the 1600 eruption it only occurs during the wet season. Cacti can be found on rocky outcrops and valley bottoms.

Based on historical records, Huaynaputina's eruption commenced on 16 February 1600, following earthquakes that began on the 15th, with the earliest signs of the impending eruption perhaps in December 1599. The event ended on 6 March with ash fall; the air was clear of ash from the eruption on 2 April 1600. Some reports of late ash falls may be due to wind-transported ash, and there are no deposits from a supposed eruption in August 1600; such reports may refer to mudflows or explosions in pyroclastic flows.

Joseph visits Estagagache in Moquegua, Peru

At first, the eruption of 1600 was attributed to Ubinas volcano and sometimes also to El Misti. Priests observed and recorded the eruption from Arequipa, and the friar Antonio Vázquez de Espinosa wrote a second-hand account of the eruption based on a witness's report from Arequipa.
 

The scale of the eruption and of its climate impact have been determined thanks to information from historical records, tree ring data, the position of glaciers, the thickness of speleothems and ice, plant flowering times, wine harvests and coral growth. Anomalies in the sun were observed after the eruption in Europe and China, often described as a dimming or reddening haze that reduced the sun's luminosity in a cloudless sky and reduced the visibility of shadows. Vivid sunsets and sunrises as well as sunspots were also noted. A darkened lunar eclipse described from Graz, Austria, in 1601 may also have been the consequence of the Huaynaputina aerosols.

Acid layers in ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland have been attributed to Huaynaputina, and their discovery led to initial discussion about whether the 1600 eruption had major effects on Earth's climate.
 

More information: Live Science

About 30,000 people live in the area of Huaynaputina today, with about 800,000 in Arequipa, and the towns of Calacoa, Omate, Puquina and Quinistaquillas and others would be threatened in case of renewed eruptions. A repeat of the 1600 eruption would likely cause a considerably greater death toll owing to population growth since 1600, in addition to causing substantial socioeconomic disruption in the Andes.

The 1600 eruption is often used as a worst case scenario model for eruptions at Peruvian volcanoes.

In 2010, earthquake activity and noises from Huaynaputina alerted the local population and led to a volcanological investigation. As part of this investigation, seismic activity was recorded around the amphitheatre; analysis showed that seismic activity was concentrated around the amphitheatre with no recorded earthquakes within it and appeared to be associated mainly with the faults and lineaments in the region.

The researchers recommended more extensive seismometer coverage of the area and regular sampling of fumaroles, as well as reconnaissance of georadar and self potential of the volcano.

In 2017, the Peruvian Geophysical Institute announced that Huaynaputina would be monitored by the future Southern Volcanological Observatory.

More information: Zurich

If I was to establish a system, it would be,

that Mountains are produced by Volcanoes,

and not Volcanoes by Mountains.

Sir William Hamilton

JACQUES ROMAIN GEORGES BREL, 'NE ME QUITTE PAS'

Jacques Brel

The Grandma is still in Brussels. She is enjoying the city, its people and its amazing culture. Today, she has decided to know more things about Jacques Brel, one of the most popular Belgian singers of all times and one of The Grandma's favourite one, too.

She is a great fan of Brel's song Ne me quitte pas, a wonderful and awesome song about a broken relationship, a theme that has been translated to some languages and it has become one of the greatest hymns of the last century. Great artists like Edith Piaf, Céline Dion, Nina Simone, Barbra Streisand, Ray Charles, Frank Sinatra, Shirley Bassey, Cindy Lauper, Charles Aznavour or Sílvia Pérez Cruz have sung this song and have converted it in an eternal theme in the history of the music.

Jacques Romain Georges Brel (8 April 1929-9 October 1978) was a Belgian singer, songwriter, poet, actor and director who composed and performed literate, thoughtful, and theatrical songs that generated a large, devoted following -initially in Belgium and France- later throughout the world. He is considered a master of the modern chanson.

More information: Jacques Brel

Although he recorded most of his songs in French and occasionally in Dutch, he became an influence on English-speaking songwriters and performers, such as Scott Walker, David Bowie, Alex Harvey, Marc Almond and Rod McKuen. English translations of his songs were recorded by many performers, including: Bowie; Walker, Ray Charles; Judy Collins; John Denver; The Kingston Trio; Nina Simone; Shirley Bassey; Frank Sinatra and Andy Williams.

Brel was a successful actor, appearing in 10 films. He directed two films, one of which, Le Far West, was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1973. Having sold over 25 million records worldwide, Brel is the third best-selling Belgian recording artist of all time.

Brel married Thérèse "Miche" Michielsen in 1950, and the couple had three children. He also had a romantic relationship with actress and dancer Maddly Bamy from 1972 until his death in 1978.

Jacques Romain Georges Brel was born on 8 April 1929 in Schaerbeek, Brussels, to Élisabeth "Lisette" and Romain Brel. He came from a family of Flemish descent, who had adopted the French language; part of his family originated in Zandvoorde, near Ypres.

Jacques Brel

His father worked for Cominex, an import–export firm, and later became co-director of a company that manufactured cardboard. Jacques and his older brother Pierre grew up in an austere household, and attended a Catholic primary school, École Saint-Viateur, run by the order of Saint Viator.

Remembered as a courteous and manageable pupil, Brel did well in reading and writing, but struggled through arithmetic and Dutch. The boys were also members of the local Boy Scouts troop, enjoyed their time at summer camp and on family outings to the North Sea coast.

In Brussels, the family lived at 138 Avenue du Diamant in Schaerbeek, then moved to 26 Boulevard Belgica in Sint-Jans-Molenbeek, and finally settled at 7 Rue Jacques-Manne in Anderlecht. Brel was close to his mother, fascinated by her generosity and sense of humour, which he inherited.

In September 1941, his parents enrolled Brel at the Institut Saint-Louis at rue du Marais near the Botanical Garden of Brussels. Although he did poorly in many subjects, he did well in history and French, and showed a talent for writing. He helped set up the school's drama club, taking on his first stage roles with great enthusiasm. He wrote short stories, poems, and essays.

More information: BBC

In 1944, at the age of 15, Brel began playing the guitar. The following year he formed his own theatre group with friends and began writing plays. In the spring of 1947, during his final year at Saint-Louis, Brel wrote a short story titled Frédéric for a school magazine Le Grand Feu. Published pseudonymously, the story is about a man on his death bed who encourages his grandson to run away while the rest of the family makes arrangements for his funeral. Despite his growing talent for writing, Brel was not a good student, and failed many of his exams.

With an academic career not in his future, the 18-year-old Brel went to work at his father's cardboard factory in August 1947. His job at Vanneste and Brel was predictable and uninspiring -a routine that involved fixing prices and meeting customers. Apart from joining the company football team, he showed little interest in the company's social activities and events. Perhaps to offset the boredom of his daily office routine, he joined a local Catholic youth organisation La Franche Cordée (FC), which had as its motto, More is within you.

Dedicated to philanthropic work, the group organised religious retreats, fundraising events, and food and clothing deliveries to orphanages and old people's homes. 

Jacques Brel

Brel supported these activities with great enthusiasm and believed strongly in FC's mission. His parents were pleased with their son's dedication, and provided him with the company van and family car to support his FC activities.

In June 1948, Brel enlisted for military service, did his basic training in Limbourg, and served as a corporal in the Belgian air force stationed at Groenveld barracks in Zellik near Brussels. Throughout his military service, Brel was still able to attend FC meetings. While working at FC, Brel met his future wife, Thérèse Michielsen, known to her friends as "Miche".

On 1 June 1950, Jacques and Miche were married at Laeken, a suburb of the City of Brussels. On 6 December 1951, Miche gave birth to their first daughter, Chantal.

In 1952 Brel began writing songs and performing them at family gatherings and on Brussels' cabaret circuit. His family and friends were not supportive of his stark lyrics and violent, emotional performances. That year he performed on a local radio station for the first time.

More information: All Music

In January 1953, Brel performed at the cabaret La Rose Noire in Brussels. In February he signed a contract with Philips Records and recorded his first 78 rpm record, Il Y A, which was released in March. The talent scout and artistic director at the record company, Jacques Canetti, invited him to move to Paris. 

Despite his family's objections and the added pressure of raising a second daughter, France, born on 12 July, he left Brussels for Paris in the autumn of 1953. In Paris Brel worked hard to get his career off the ground. He stayed at the Hotel Stevens and gave guitar lessons to artist-dancer Francesco Frediani to pay his rent. He found work on the cabaret circuit at venues such as L'Écluse, L'Échelle de Jacob, and in Jacques Canetti's cabaret Les Trois Baudets.

In 1954 Brel competed in the music contest Grand Prix de la Chanson in Knokke-le-Zoute, finishing a disappointing 27th out of 28 participants. One positive result of the experience was that the French star Juliette Gréco requested to sing one of Brel's songs, Le diable (Ça va), at her up-and-coming concert at the prestigious Olympia music-hall. She went on to record the song that spring.

Jacques Brel

In July 1954, Brel made his first appearance at the prestigious Olympia Theatre in Paris.

Later that summer, he embarked on his first French tour, appearing on the bill with French singers Dario Moreno, Philippe Clay, and Catherine Sauvage. By the end of the year, Philips released his debut album, a nine-song, 10-inch LP called Jacques Brel et ses Chansons. In February 1955, Brel met Georges "Jojo" Pasquier, who would become the singer's closest friend, manager, and personal chauffeur. He began singing with a number of Christian associations, which later led to his nickname of Abbé "Abbot" Brel. In March Brel's wife and children joined him in France and the family settled in the Paris suburb of Montreuil-sous-Bois at the rue du Moulin à vent. In June he toured France again with Canetti's show Les Filles de Papa, which included Françoise Dorin, Perrette Souplex, and Suzanne Gabriello.

In March 1956, Brel performed in North Africa, Amsterdam, Lausanne, and throughout Belgium. In July, while visiting Grenoble, he met François Rauber, a classical pianist who would become his accompanist on future recordings. Rauber played a major role in providing Brel with the formal musical training he was lacking and was responsible for Brel's musical arrangements.

The year 1964 brought a mix of personal tragedies and professional triumphs. On 8 January, Brel's father, Romain, died of bronchial pneumonia. Only two months later, on 7 March, his mother Élisabeth, nicknamed Mouky, also died. At the same time, he was given the Gold Medal of Brussels from the Tourist Information Bureau and won a prize from the Société d’Auteurs Belge/Belgische Auteurs Maatschappij (SABAM). He was also awarded the French Academy's Grand Prix du Disque. He continued his ambitious touring schedule. 

More information: WSWS

By the end of the year, he released a new live album, Enregistrement Public à l'Olympia 1964. That year, he discovered a new passion, aviation. After taking flying lessons with Paul Lepanse, he purchased a small plane.

In the United States, his audience was growing. American poet and singer Rod McKuen began translating Brel's songs into English, and the Kingston Trio recorded one of his English versions on their Time to Think album, Seasons in the Sun, based on Brel's Le Moribond.

In January 1967, Brel finished recording songs for a new studio album, Jacques Brel 67, which was released later in the year. The album included Mon Enfance, Fils de..., Les bonbons 67, and La Chanson des vieux amants. In late January, he returned to Carnegie Hall and gave one final performance. 

Jacques Brel

By early 1973, Brel knew that he was ill. He prepared his will, leaving everything to his wife Miche. In the spring he recorded a new single, L'Enfance, the proceeds of which he donated to La Fondation Perce Neige, an association set up to help disabled children.

After completing his last film L'emmerdeur, he took his daughters on a cruise. In November, he embarked on a two-month cruise across the Atlantic with five of his closest friends on the training ship Le Korrig. Brel devoted the final years of his life to his passion for sailing.

In 1977, Brel decided to record one final album. Despite his recent years away from the continent, his legend lived on in Europe and his records still sold millions of copies each year. In August, Brel returned to Paris and moved into a small hotel. He had quit smoking and, despite his poor health, was enthusiastic about working again with his faithful collaborators François Rauber and Gérard Jouannest.

In September and October, Brel recorded 12 of the 17 new songs he had written in the Marquesas. The result was his final album, Les Marquises, which included Jaures, Vieillir, Le Bon Dieu, Orly, Voir un Ami pleurer, Jojo, and Les Marquises. The new album was released on 17 November and was received as an historic national event in France.

At Brel's request, Barclay did not run a huge promotional campaign for the album, and still, by word of mouth alone, over a million fans placed advance orders. The day the album was released, Jacques and Maddly returned to their home in the Marquesas Islands.

More information: The Guardian I & II

From January to June 1978, Jacques and Maddly lived quietly at their home on Atuona Bay on Hiva-Oa island. In July, after his health began to fail, Brel was flown back to France and rushed to a hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine, where doctors discovered a cancerous tumour. He remained in the hospital for six weeks and then spent the rest of the summer in Southern France.

On 7 October, he was rushed to hospital Avicenne in Bobigny near Paris. He died of a pulmonary embolism at 4.10 am on 9 October 1978 at the age of 49. On 12 October, his body was flown back to the Marquesas Islands, where he was buried in Calvary Cemetery in Atuona on the southern side of Hiva Oa island in the Marquesas, French Polynesia -a few yards away from the grave of artist Paul Gauguin.

Brel himself occasionally included parts of his songs in Dutch, one of the three official languages of Belgium, as in Mariek. He also recorded eight other Dutch versions of songs, such as Mijn vlakke land, Laat me niet alleen, Rosa, De Burgerij, and De Nuttelozen van de Nacht. Brel also recorded two obscure singles in Dutch, De apen and Men vergeet niets, which were included in the 16-CD box set Boîte à Bonbons by Barclay. So far unreleased is the song Als men niets dan liefde heeft.

Marieke was translated by Brel himself. Since his own command of Dutch was poor, most of Brel's later Dutch interpretations were translated by Ernst van Altena, with Brel's cooperation, and are generally considered to be relatively true to the original French and poetic. De Apen was translated by Eric Franssen. Men vergeet niets was translated by well known Flemish artist Will Ferdy. Popular singers from the Netherlands singing Brel's songs in Dutch have been Liesbeth List, Jan Mesdag and Jeroen Willems.

More information: The Independent

Ne me quitte pas
Il faut oublier
Tout peut s'oublier
Qui s'enfuit déjà
Oublier le temps
Des malentendus
Et le temps perdu
À savoir comment
Oublier ces heures
Qui tuaient parfois à coups de pourquoi
Le cœur du bonheur

Jacques Brel

STAD BRUSSEL/BRUXELIES VILLE, THE BELGIAN CAPITAL

Brussels, Belgium

The Grandma is still visiting Brussels. Yesterday was a rainy day and The Grandma was relaxing at hotel talking with her friends and reading about the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre of Chicago. Today, the weather is fantastic and The Grandma has visited the most popular places of a beautiful city symbol of the European spirit of freedom and respect.

Brussels, in French Bruxelles and in Dutch Brussel, is the Brussels-Capital Region (Région de Bruxelles-Capitale / Brussels Hoofdstedelijk Gewest), is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the capital of Belgium.

The Brussels-Capital Region is located in the central portion of the country and is a part of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community, but is separate from the Flemish Region, which forms an enclave, and the Walloon Region.

More information: City of Brussels

Brussels is the most densely populated and the richest region in Belgium in terms of GDP per capita. It covers 162 km2, a relatively small area compared to the two other regions, and has a population of over 1.2 million.

The metropolitan area of Brussels comprises over 2.5 million people, which makes it the largest in Belgium. It is also part of a large conurbation extending towards Ghent, Antwerp, Leuven and Walloon Brabant, home to over 5 million people.

Brussels grew from a small rural settlement on the river Senne to become an important city-region in Europe. Since the end of the Second World War, it has been a major centre for international politics and home to numerous international organisations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants.

 More information: Brussels

Brussels is the de facto capital of the European Union, as it hosts a number of principal EU institutions, including its administrative-legislative, executive-political, and legislative branches, though the judicial branch is located in Luxembourg, and the European Parliament meets for a minority of the year in Strasbourg. Its name is sometimes used metonymically to describe the EU and its institutions.

The secretariat of the Benelux and headquarters of NATO are also located in Brussels. As the economic capital of Belgium and one of the top financial centres of Western Europe with Euronext Brussels, it is classified as an Alpha global city.

The Grandma visits the Atomium, Brussels

Brussels is a hub for rail, road and air traffic, sometimes earning the moniker Crossroads of Europe. The Brussels Metro is the only rapid transit system in Belgium. In addition, both its airport and railway stations are the largest and busiest in the country.

Historically Dutch-speaking, Brussels saw a language shift to French from the late 19th century. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially bilingual in French and Dutch, even though French is now the de facto main language with over 90% of the population speaking it. Brussels is also increasingly becoming multilingual. English is spoken as a second language by nearly a third of the population and many migrants and expatriates speak other languages as well.

Brussels is known for its cuisine and gastronomy, as well as its historical and architectural landmarks; some of them are registered as UNESCO World Heritage sites. Main attractions include its historic Grand Place, Manneken Pis, Atomium, and cultural institutions such as La Monnaie/De Munt and the Museums of Art and History. Due to its long tradition of Belgian comics, Brussels is also hailed as a capital of the comic strip.

 More information: Introducing Brussels

The most common theory of the origin of the name Brussels is that it derives from the Old Dutch Bruocsella, Broekzele or Broeksel, meaning marsh (bruoc/broek) and home (sella/zele/sel) or home in the marsh. Saint Vindicianus, the bishop of Cambrai, made the first recorded reference to the place Brosella in 695, when it was still a hamlet. The names of all the municipalities in the Brussels-Capital Region are also of Dutch origin, except for Evere, which is Celtic.

The history of Brussels is closely linked to that of Western Europe. Traces of human settlement go back to the Stone Age, with vestiges and place-names related to the civilisation of megaliths, dolmens and standing stones. Plattesteen in the City of Brussels and Tomberg in Woluwe-Saint-Lambert, for example.

More information: Visit Brussels

During late antiquity, the region was home to Roman occupation, as attested by archaeological evidence discovered on the site of Tour & Taxis. Following the decline of the Western Roman Empire, it was incorporated into the Frankish Empire. The origin of the settlement which was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus' construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. 

The Grandma inside the Atomium, Brussels

The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, when Duke Charles of Lower Lotharingia transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel, located in today's province of East Flanders, to Saint Gaugericus' chapel. Charles would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island.

Lambert I of Leuven, Count of Leuven, gained the County of Brussels around 1000, by marrying Charles' daughter. Because of its location on the shores of the Senne, on an important trade route between Bruges and Ghent, and Cologne, Brussels became a commercial centre specialised in the textile trade. The town grew quite rapidly and extended towards the upper town (Treurenberg, Coudenberg and Sablon/Zavel areas), where there was a smaller risk of floods.

As it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. Around this time, work began on what is now the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula (1225), replacing an older Romanesque church. In 1183, the Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant.

Brabant, unlike the county of Flanders, was not fief of the king of France but was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire. In the early 13th century, the first Fortifications of Brussels were built, and after this, the city grew significantly. To let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Traces of these can still be seen, although the small ring, a series of roadways bounding the historic city centre, follows its former course.

More information: Agenda Brussels

In the 15th century, the marriage between heiress Margaret III of Flanders and Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, produced a new Duke of Brabant of the House of Valois, namely Antoine, their son.

In 1477, the Burgundian duke Charles the Bold perished in the Battle of Nancy. Through the marriage of his daughter Mary of Burgundy, who was born in Brussels, to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Low Countries fell under Habsburg sovereignty.

Brabant was integrated into this composite state, and Brussels flourished as the Princely Capital of the prosperous Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482, her son Philip the Handsome succeeded as Duke of Burgundy and Brabant.

Visiting the Flemish Parliament, Brussels

Philip died in 1506, and he was succeeded by his son Charles V who then also became King of Spain, crowned in the Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula, and even Holy Roman Emperor at the death of his grandfather Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519.

Charles was now the ruler of a Habsburg Empire on which the sun never sets with Brussels serving as his main capital. It was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V was declared of age in 1515, and it was there that he abdicated all of his possessions and passed the Habsburg Netherlands to Philip II of Spain. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731.

In the 17th century, Brussels was a centre for the lace industry. In 1695, during the Nine Years' War, King Louis XIV of France sent troops to bombard Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was the most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels.

The Grand Place was destroyed, along with 4,000 buildings -a third of all the buildings in the city. The reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed its appearance and left numerous traces still visible today.

More information: Visit Flanders

Following the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, Spanish sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg. This event started the era of the Austrian Netherlands. Brussels was captured by France in 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession, but was handed back to Austria three years later.

It remained with Austria until 1795, when the Southern Netherlands were captured and annexed by France, and the city became the capital of the department of the Dyle.

The French rule ended in 1815, with the defeat of Napoleon on the battlefield of Waterloo, located south of today's Brussels-Capital Region. With the Congress of Vienna, the Southern Netherlands joined the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, under William I of Orange. The former Dyle department became the province of South Brabant, with Brussels as its capital.

The Manneken Pis, Brussels

In 1830, the Belgian revolution began in Brussels, after a performance of Auber's opera La Muette de Portici at the Royal Theatre of La Monnaie. The city became the capital and seat of government of the new nation.

South Brabant was renamed simply Brabant, with Brussels as its administrative centre. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings.

Following independence, Brussels underwent many more changes. It became a financial centre, thanks to the dozens of companies launched by the Société Générale de Belgique. The Industrial Revolution and the building of the Brussels-Charleroi Canal brought prosperity to the city through commerce and manufacturing. The Free University of Brussels was established in 1834 and Saint-Louis University in 1858.

In 1835, the first passenger railway built outside England linked the municipality of Molenbeek with Mechelen.

During the 19th century, the population of Brussels grew considerably; from about 80,000 to more than 625,000 people for the city and its surroundings.

More information: The Culture Trip

The Senne had become a serious health hazard, and from 1867 to 1871, under the tenure of mayor Jules Anspach, its entire course through the urban area was completely covered over. This allowed urban renewal and the construction of modern buildings of hausmannien style along central boulevards, characteristic of downtown Brussels today.

Buildings such as the Brussels Stock Exchange (1873), the Palace of Justice (1883) and Saint Mary's Royal Church (1885) date from this period. This development continued throughout the reign of King Leopold II.

The International Exposition of 1897 contributed to the promotion of the infrastructure. Among other things, the Colonial Palace (today's Royal Museum for Central Africa), in the suburb of Tervuren, was connected to the capital by the construction of an 11-km long grand alley.

The Grandma visits Brussels, Belgium

During the 20th century, the city hosted various fairs and conferences, including the Solvay Conference on Physics and on Chemistry, and three world fairs: the Brussels International Exposition of 1910, the Brussels International Exposition of 1935 and Expo '58.

During World War I, Brussels was an occupied city, but German troops did not cause much damage. During World War II, it was again occupied by German forces, and spared major damage, before it was liberated by the British Guards Armoured Division on 3 September 1944. The Brussels Airport, in the suburb of Zaventem, dates from the occupation.

After the war, Brussels underwent extensive modernisation. The construction of the North–South connection, linking the main railway stations in the city, was completed in 1952, while the first premetro was finished in 1969, and the first line of the metro was opened in 1976.

More information: Time Out

Starting from the early 1960s, Brussels became the de facto capital of what would become the European Union, and many modern offices were built. Development was allowed to proceed with little regard to the aesthetics of newer buildings, and numerous architectural landmarks were demolished to make way for newer buildings that often clashed with their surroundings, giving name to the process of Brusselisation.

The Brussels-Capital Region was formed on 18 June 1989, after a constitutional reform in 1988. It is one of the three federal regions of Belgium, along with Flanders and Wallonia, and has bilingual status. The yellow iris is the emblem of the region, referring to the presence of these flowers on the city's original site, and a stylised version in shown on its official flag.

More information: The Crazy Tourist

Despite its name, the Brussels-Capital Region is not the capital of Belgium. Article 194 of the Belgian Constitution establishes that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, the municipality in the region that is the city's core.

The City of Brussels is the location of many national institutions. The Royal Palace, where the King of the Belgians exercises his prerogatives as head of state, is situated alongside Brussels' Park, not to be confused with the Royal Castle of Laeken, the official home of the Belgian Royal Family.

The Grandma visits Brussels, Belgium

The Palace of the Nation is located on the opposite side of this park, and is the seat of the Belgian Federal Parliament. The office of the Prime Minister of Belgium, colloquially called Law Street 16, in French 16, rue de la Loi and in Dutch Wetstraat 16, is located adjacent to this building. It is also where the Council of Ministers holds its meetings.

The Court of Cassation, Belgium's main court, has its seat in the Palace of Justice. Other important institutions in the City of Brussels are the Constitutional Court, the Council of State, the Court of Audit, the Royal Belgian Mint and the National Bank of Belgium.

The City of Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community. The Flemish Parliament and Flemish Government have their seats in Brussels, and so do the Parliament of the French Community and the Government of the French Community.

More information: The Travel Magazine

Brussels is home to a large number of immigrants. At the last Belgian census in 1991, 63.7% of inhabitants in Brussels-Capital Region answered that they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium. However, there have been numerous individual or familial migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, including political refugees (Karl Marx, Victor Hugo, Charles Baudelaire, Léon Daudet, Auguste Rodin, Alexandre Dumas, Friedrich Engels, Rafael Correa, Josep Valtònyc, Toni Comín and Carles Puigdemont), from neighbouring or more distant countries, as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can claim at least one foreign grandparent.

Brussels has a large concentration of immigrants from other countries, and their children, including many of Moroccan (Riffian, Berber) and Turkish ancestry, together with French-speaking black Africans from former Belgian colonies, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi.

The Grandma visits Brussels, Belgium

People of foreign origin make up nearly 70% of the population of Brussels, most of whom have been naturalised following the great 1991 reform of the naturalisation process. 

About 32% of city residents are of non-Belgian European origin, and 36% are of another background, mostly from Morocco, Turkey and Sub-Saharan Africa. Among all major migrant groups from outside the EU, a majority of the permanent residents have acquired Belgian nationality.

The architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the clashing combination of Gothic, Baroque, and Louis XIV styles on the Grand Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions.

Very little medieval architecture is preserved in Brussels. Buildings from that period are mostly found in the historic centre (called Îlot Sacré), Saint Géry/Sint-Goriks and Sainte-Catherine/Sint Katelijne neighbourhoods. The Brabantine Gothic Cathedral of St. Michael and St. Gudula remains a prominent feature in the skyline of downtown Brussels.

More information: The Telegraph

Isolated portions of the first city walls were saved from destruction and can be seen to this day. One of the only remains of the second walls is the Halle Gate. The Grand Place is the main attraction in the city centre and has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998.

The square is dominated by the 15th century Flamboyant Town Hall, the neo-Gothic Breadhouse and the Baroque guildhalls of the Guilds of Brussels. Manneken Pis, a fountain containing a small bronze sculpture of a urinating youth, is a tourist attraction and symbol of the city.

Visiting Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium

The Atomium is a symbolic 103-metre tall modernist structure, located on the Heysel Plateau, which was originally built for the 1958 World's Fair (Expo '58).

It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of an iron crystal (specifically, a unit cell), magnified 165 billion times. The architect A. Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. It is now considered a landmark of Brussels.

Since the founding of the Kingdom of Belgium in 1830, Brussels has transformed from being almost entirely Dutch-speaking (Brabantian dialect to be exact), to being a multilingual city with French (specifically Belgian French) as the majority language and lingua franca. 

This language shift, the Francisation of Brussels, is rooted in the 18th century and accelerated after Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded past its original boundaries.

More information: The Guardian

Brussels contains over 80 museums. The Royal Museums of Fine Arts has an extensive collection of various painters, such as Flemish old masters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, Jacob Jordaens, and Peter Paul Rubens. The Magritte Museum houses the world's largest collection of the works of the surrealist René Magritte.

Brussels is also a capital of the comic strip; some treasured Belgian characters are Tintin, Lucky Luke, The Smurfs, Spirou, Gaston, Marsupilami, Blake and Mortimer, Boule et Bill and Cubitus. Throughout the city, walls are painted with large motifs of comic book characters; these murals taken together are known as Brussels' Comic Book Route. Also, the interiors of some Metro stations are designed by artists. 

The Belgian Comic Strip Center combines two artistic leitmotifs of Brussels, being a museum devoted to Belgian comic strips, housed in the former Waucquez department store, designed by Victor Horta in the Art Nouveau style.

More information: Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium

Brussels is known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout, which has long been popular in Brussels, and may have originated there, is also named after the city.

Belgian cuisine is characterised by the combination of French cuisine with the more hearty Flemish fare.

Notable specialities include Brussels waffles (gaufres) and mussels (usually as moules-frites, served with fries).

The city is a stronghold of chocolate and pralines manufacturers with renowned companies like Côte d'Or, Neuhaus, Leonidas and Godiva. Pralines were first introduced in 1912, by Jean Neuhaus II, a Belgian chocolatier of Swiss origin, in the Royal Saint-Hubert Galleries.

As well as other Belgian beers, the spontaneously fermented lambic style, brewed in and around Brussels, is widely available there and in the nearby Senne valley where the wild yeasts which ferment it have their origin. Kriek, a cherry lambic, is available in almost every bar or restaurant in Brussels.

More information: Beer Project

Brussels is a gay little city

that lies as bright within its girdle

of woodland as any butterfly that rests upon moss.

Ouida